Experiencing U.S. Expansion: Southern Arizona - Part

6. What two threats did Mexico face in its northern frontier in the mid-nineteenth century?

a. The threat of the Apache, because the temporary period of peace between them and New Spain ended once New Spain's government became unstable.

b. The threat of the eager United States settlers, who were anxious for more land and southern Arizona's rich resources.

7. Why did the Gadsden Purchase have such a great impact on northern Mexicans?

The Gadsden Purchase had such a great impact on northern Mexicans because they did not consent to the purchase, and now their land and cities were in the territory of the United States. They viewed the event as a betrayal by their Mexican government. 

8. List two ways that cultural misunderstanding contributed to a growing conflict between U.S. settlers and Apache groups.

a. People from the U.S. couldn't distinguish between the Apache and other Indian tribes, let alone the sub-tribes of the Apache. So, they often attacked the wrong group of Indians, or couldn't tell which tribe they had made peace treaties with.

b. When peace treaties were made, the U.S. thought they applied to multiple groups of Indians, not just one small group, while the Apache knew it applied only to that smaller tribe. Therefore, the U.S. thought the Apache had betrayed them when groups of Apache went against there peace treaty, because they didn't know those groups weren't included in the agreement.

9. How did the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase spark a civil war in...
a. Mexico? Many Mexican people felt the huge loss of lands through both the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase was a big blow against Mexican economy, society, etc. Therefore reformers overthrew their government with Santa Ana, considering it incompetent, and installed a new one despite protests from people who were against change.

b. the United States? The gain of land through these treaties caused more dispute between the north and south over which states would be entered as free states and slave states. This ongoing argument was  sparked by the sudden amount of territories, and the Civil War in the United States began.


10. a. What did many U.S. settlers want U.S. policy towards the Apache to be?

Many U.S. settlers wanted the extermination of the Apache. It was a common belief that the only solution was a violent response. 

b. In what ways did this clash with the federal government’s Peace Policy?

Well the Peace Policy didn't have to do with violence at first, as long as the Apache and other Indian tribes cooperated. Considering many U.S. settlers wanted the Apache completely gone, just moving them into designated areas was not the most appealing answer to many. So as time progressed, and the Apache didn't immediately cooperate, violence became more prominent. 

11. Why were the Apache hesitant to move onto reservations?

The Apache were hesitant to move onto reservations for many reasons. The U.S. had used peace as a way to trick and slaughter Apache in the past, so that was one very obvious reason. The story of Navajo groups in a war involving reservations was also recalled. Lastly, some Apache migrated annually, and being moved permanently onto a reservation was conflicting to their traditions. 

Experiencing U.S. Expansion: Southern Arizona

1. What were the two broad groupings of Native Americans in southern Arizona when the Spanish arrived?

Broad Group 1   Name for Self:  O’odham     Spanish Name(s): Pima; Papago

Broad Group 2   Name for self: Nnee              Spanish Name(s): Apache

2. How did the O’odham show their unwillingness to fully embrace the Spanish missions?
They would make up elaborate stories about people who were sick and needed to go to confession, or something of that sort, and tell them to the fathers (the missionaries). That way the fathers would leave the villages for a while and the O’odham would be able to do their dances and religious customs without the fathers inhibiting their rituals. 

3. Why did Apache groups raid Spanish settlements?
Apache groups were very small and diverse, therefore they hadn't had much contact with the Spanish, thus they didn't get any of their goods, livestock, etc. So, the Apache, who didn't view animals as property, began to raid Spanish settlements when they were in need of livestock, supplies, or food. The Apaches didn't originally look at it as stealing, until the Spanish had violent responses to the raids. 

4. What was the cycle of violence?
The cycle of violence began with the Apache raids. Although the Apache didn't intend for it to have violent results, it triggered a cycle. When the Apache raided the Spanish Settlements, the Spanish became angry and therefore called upon the O’odham to fight against the Apache. Warfare, according to the customs of both the O’odham and the Apache, is normally begun when an act is committed against them, like a murder in the group; when something like that occurs, the victimized group will retaliate by either capturing one captive or killing one from the opposing group, and then the dispute is over. But, when the O’odham attacked the Apache, the Apache of course would retaliate. Then the O’odham would retaliate, and so on. If captives were taken by the Apache or the O’odham, they would usually ended up being traded in to the Spanish for the group's (the one that is trading them in) members that were previously captives. So it was just an endless cycle of violence. 

5. How did Spanish and Apache views of the peace created by the establicimientos de paz differ? 
The Spanish viewed the peace created by the establicimientos de paz as a golden era; a time when Spanish settlement could expand because of the peace between them and Apaches, and their manpower was strong. The Apache viewed the peace created by the establicimientos de paz as an obligation between local bands and communities that resulted in the Apache gaining rations of supplies from the Spanish in exchange for giving the Spanish military support against hostile Apaches not in the establicimientos de paz. 

New Settlers in the West

1. Read pages 10 - 18  List three reasons why people in the United States moved west.

a. It was a symbol of opportunity. People could completely restart their lives: new homes, new towns, new people.

b. The population in the United States at the time was rapidly increasing, and the West was a great place for all the new immigrant and families to move.

c. It was full of resources, had vast forests with timber, and had the rich soil that was lacking in the East.

2. How did westward expansion contribute to sectional tensions in the United States?

     With each new state that was annexed into the United States, it was either a slave state or free state. If the number of slave states outweighed the number of free states, slave states had more power in Congress, and vice versa. Therefore, as the U.S. continued to expand, its politics became more and more separated between the slave states and free states. The United States split into two main sections of belief: the south, which was full of slave states, and the north, which was full of free states.

3. What was the Peace Policy?

      The Peace Policy was created by President Ulysses S. Grant. This policy was mean to create "peace" with the Native Americans by making them all go in reservations. In the reservations, Indians would be taught English, agricultural ways of the U.S., and Christianity. So basically, the Peace Policy was another way to try to assimilate Native Americans into U.S. society. While the policy wasn't meant to exterminate the Native Americans, if any of the Indians were not on the reservations, the U.S. military would take action. The policy itself is a great example of how the United States contradicted its beliefs, but it was looked at as a good negotiation between Native Americans and the U.S at the time. 

Indian Removal Act

1. Read pages 10 - 12 (Stop at "Settlers Move West"). Why did the United States fight or negotiate with dozens of Indian groups for the lands in the Louisiana Territory?  
    If this question means fighting and negotiating with the Indians in order to move them into the Louisiana Territory, which is what the reading said, then:
     The United States was gradually expanding, and therefore when Jefferson purchased the Louisiana Territory, he did so knowing that it would be a convenient place to move the Indians in order to move them out of U.S. states like Georgia. Of course, many Native Americans refused to do so considering they had established sturdy homes and societies. Other tribes complied, such as the Choctaws. But when the Cherokees absolutely refused to negotiate or comply at all, the United States had to force them into the territory, which was an event known as the Trail of Tears. The U.S. was hungry for more land, and it's belief in manifest destiny was the reason for all the Indian Removal Acts.

2. In what ways did the Cherokees assimilate U.S. values and customs?
     The Cherokees established a republic based off of the United State's government, created a constitution, and declared themselves an independent nation. They also participated in the successful cotton economy; and some owned African American slaves as well. The Cherokee, while still upholding their original customs and traditions, managed to create a government for themselves and participate in lucrative economy.